L - Nutrition
Lecithin
Lecithin is a phospholipid, found in linseed. Phospholipids are likely to be involved in stabilising the protective barrier of the mucin layer on the gastric mucosa (Wassef et al. 1978). Rats given a phospholipid solution had far less acid-induced ulcers following administration of hydrochloric acid than rats not given a phospholipid solution (Lichtenberger et al. 1983).
Do Pectin and Lecithins Help Equine Gastric Health? Clair Thunes February 2018 www.thehorse.com
I'm interested in using lecithin as a behaviour modifier..... Equinews KER
Sanz MG, Viljoen A, Saulez MN, Olorunju S, Andrews FM.
Efficacy of a pectin-lecithin complex for treatment and prevention of gastric ulcers in horses.
Vet Rec. 2014 Aug 9;175(6):147. doi: 10.1136/vr.102359. Epub 2014 May 12. PMID: 24821856. (Full paper: ResearchGate, DeepDyve)
10 healthy mares split into 2 groups of 5 horses in a cross-over design. Horses were fed ad lib teff hay plus 1% bodyweight concentrate, plus one group in each study period were given 50 g/100 kg bodyweight Pronutrin pectin-lecithin complex for 4 weeks. In week 5 the horses were starved for 24 hours every other day, but still received either the Pronutrin for the treatment group or a similar amount of concentrate for the control group. Interestingly all horses had mild ulceration of the squamous mucosa on day 1 of each study period. Starving the horses for 24 hours every other day significantly increased the number, severity and EGUS score of gastric ulceration, but treatment with Pronutrin had no preventative effect, nor did ulcer scores improve after 4 weeks of treatment with Pronutrin and before the week of alternate day starvation.
Venner M, Lauffs S, Deegen E.
Treatment of gastric lesions in horses with pectin-lecithin complex.
Equine Vet J Suppl. 1999 Apr;(29):91-6. doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.1999.tb05178.x. PMID: 10696303. (Full paper: DeepDyve)
24 horses with gastric lesions found during gastroscope examination were either given 300 g/day Pronutrin, a pectin-lecithin complex, for 10 days or not (control). The horses given Pronutrin showed good acceptance of the product and no side effects were seen. Gastroscopy on day 11 found a marked reduction in or disappearance of gastric lesions in horses treated with Pronutrin, whereas control horses showed no change or deterioration.
Lecithin is a phospholipid, found in linseed. Phospholipids are likely to be involved in stabilising the protective barrier of the mucin layer on the gastric mucosa (Wassef et al. 1978). Rats given a phospholipid solution had far less acid-induced ulcers following administration of hydrochloric acid than rats not given a phospholipid solution (Lichtenberger et al. 1983).
Do Pectin and Lecithins Help Equine Gastric Health? Clair Thunes February 2018 www.thehorse.com
I'm interested in using lecithin as a behaviour modifier..... Equinews KER
Sanz MG, Viljoen A, Saulez MN, Olorunju S, Andrews FM.
Efficacy of a pectin-lecithin complex for treatment and prevention of gastric ulcers in horses.
Vet Rec. 2014 Aug 9;175(6):147. doi: 10.1136/vr.102359. Epub 2014 May 12. PMID: 24821856. (Full paper: ResearchGate, DeepDyve)
10 healthy mares split into 2 groups of 5 horses in a cross-over design. Horses were fed ad lib teff hay plus 1% bodyweight concentrate, plus one group in each study period were given 50 g/100 kg bodyweight Pronutrin pectin-lecithin complex for 4 weeks. In week 5 the horses were starved for 24 hours every other day, but still received either the Pronutrin for the treatment group or a similar amount of concentrate for the control group. Interestingly all horses had mild ulceration of the squamous mucosa on day 1 of each study period. Starving the horses for 24 hours every other day significantly increased the number, severity and EGUS score of gastric ulceration, but treatment with Pronutrin had no preventative effect, nor did ulcer scores improve after 4 weeks of treatment with Pronutrin and before the week of alternate day starvation.
Venner M, Lauffs S, Deegen E.
Treatment of gastric lesions in horses with pectin-lecithin complex.
Equine Vet J Suppl. 1999 Apr;(29):91-6. doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.1999.tb05178.x. PMID: 10696303. (Full paper: DeepDyve)
24 horses with gastric lesions found during gastroscope examination were either given 300 g/day Pronutrin, a pectin-lecithin complex, for 10 days or not (control). The horses given Pronutrin showed good acceptance of the product and no side effects were seen. Gastroscopy on day 11 found a marked reduction in or disappearance of gastric lesions in horses treated with Pronutrin, whereas control horses showed no change or deterioration.
Lectin
Lectins are proteins, found in plants in some seeds and beans. Most lectins are not dangerous, but some have undesirable effects, such as agglutinins in raw soya beans which can interfere with mineral and protein absorption.
Lectins, found in soya beans, are antinutritive factors that potentially can have a negative effect on animal health, but heat treatment during feed processing destroys many antinutritive factors, and European feed legislation limits the presence of undesirable substances in animal feeds. (Source: Equine Applied and Clinical Nutrition edited by Geor RJ, Harris PA, Coenen M 2013 page 414).
Also a Myth - Lectin-Free for Insulin Resistant Horses - Uckele July 2019
Plant lectins do not affect insulin or cause/exacerbate laminitis.
Lectins are proteins, found in plants in some seeds and beans. Most lectins are not dangerous, but some have undesirable effects, such as agglutinins in raw soya beans which can interfere with mineral and protein absorption.
Lectins, found in soya beans, are antinutritive factors that potentially can have a negative effect on animal health, but heat treatment during feed processing destroys many antinutritive factors, and European feed legislation limits the presence of undesirable substances in animal feeds. (Source: Equine Applied and Clinical Nutrition edited by Geor RJ, Harris PA, Coenen M 2013 page 414).
Also a Myth - Lectin-Free for Insulin Resistant Horses - Uckele July 2019
Plant lectins do not affect insulin or cause/exacerbate laminitis.
Lignin
Lignin is a structural carbohydrate/polysaccharide that makes up the cell walls of plants together with cellulose and hemicellulose (and pectin).
Lignin is an insoluble fibre (insoluble in water) that provides strength and rigidity for normal plant growth. The amount of lignin in grass increases with maturity.
Lignin is not generally measured directly in a forage analysis. ADF = cellulose and lignin, i.e. the more poorly digestible fibre in a plant. NDF = cellulose, lignin and hemicellulose.
Structural carbohydrates have beta bonds which cannot be broken down by digestive enzymes in the horse's small intestine, but (some) are fermented by microflora in the large intestine to volatile fatty acids (VFAs).
However, lignin has been considered completely resistant to digestion and fermentation by animals and bacteria, passing through the horse and being excreted in the faeces. Digestibility decreases as the lignin content of forage increases. Lignin helps maintain gastrointestinal motility (source: Equine Clinical Nutrition edited by Rebecca Remillard, Wiley Blackwell 2023).
For weight loss or maintenance, horses may benefit from forage with around 50-65% NDF and 35-45% ADF; forage with values above these have little nutritional value for horses but may be useful for horses with insulin dysregulation or that require weight loss. Straw with its higher lignin content may have NDF of over 70% and ADF of around 50%.
Grev AM, Hathaway MR, Sheaffer CC, Wells MS, Reiter AS, Martinson KL.
Apparent digestibility, fecal particle size, and mean retention time of reduced lignin alfalfa hay fed to horses.
J Anim Sci. 2021 Jul 1;99(7):skab158. doi: 10.1093/jas/skab158. PMID: 34013333; PMCID: PMC8280930.
Forage dry matter digestibility increased by 3% when horses ate reduced lignin alfalfa hay (acid detergent lignin (ADL) 7.4%) compared to normal alfalfa hay (ADL 8.1%).
Lignin is a structural carbohydrate/polysaccharide that makes up the cell walls of plants together with cellulose and hemicellulose (and pectin).
Lignin is an insoluble fibre (insoluble in water) that provides strength and rigidity for normal plant growth. The amount of lignin in grass increases with maturity.
Lignin is not generally measured directly in a forage analysis. ADF = cellulose and lignin, i.e. the more poorly digestible fibre in a plant. NDF = cellulose, lignin and hemicellulose.
Structural carbohydrates have beta bonds which cannot be broken down by digestive enzymes in the horse's small intestine, but (some) are fermented by microflora in the large intestine to volatile fatty acids (VFAs).
However, lignin has been considered completely resistant to digestion and fermentation by animals and bacteria, passing through the horse and being excreted in the faeces. Digestibility decreases as the lignin content of forage increases. Lignin helps maintain gastrointestinal motility (source: Equine Clinical Nutrition edited by Rebecca Remillard, Wiley Blackwell 2023).
For weight loss or maintenance, horses may benefit from forage with around 50-65% NDF and 35-45% ADF; forage with values above these have little nutritional value for horses but may be useful for horses with insulin dysregulation or that require weight loss. Straw with its higher lignin content may have NDF of over 70% and ADF of around 50%.
Grev AM, Hathaway MR, Sheaffer CC, Wells MS, Reiter AS, Martinson KL.
Apparent digestibility, fecal particle size, and mean retention time of reduced lignin alfalfa hay fed to horses.
J Anim Sci. 2021 Jul 1;99(7):skab158. doi: 10.1093/jas/skab158. PMID: 34013333; PMCID: PMC8280930.
Forage dry matter digestibility increased by 3% when horses ate reduced lignin alfalfa hay (acid detergent lignin (ADL) 7.4%) compared to normal alfalfa hay (ADL 8.1%).
Linseed (Flaxseed)
Linseed is an oil seed that provides good amounts of omega 3 (alpha-linolenic acid), with a ratio of around 4:1 omega 3:omega 6, similar to fresh grass. Whole linseed also contains lignans, high quality protein and soluble fibre. Alpha-linolenic acid makes up around 57% of the total fatty acid content of linseed, and is considered an inhibitor of pro-inflammatory mediators. Lignans acts as antioxidants and phytoestrogens. Linseed also contains cyanogenic glycosides which can release hydrogen cyanide in certain circumstances and produce thiocyanates that interfere with iodine uptake by the thyroid gland. For humans, linseed is recognised as a functional food - a food that may provide physiological benefits beyond basic nutritional functions that help to prevent and/or cure disease.
Analysis:
Linseed - Feedipedia
Feedipedia figures:
Linseed meal (leftover after oil extraction):
Crude protein 34.1% - 341 g/kg
Lysine 4% of CP - 341 g x 4% = 13.64 g of lysine/kg.
Iron 175 mg/kg.
Total sugars 4.3%.
(Compare linseed meal to copra, which has crude protein 22.4% (DM) - 224 g/kg, lysine 2.6% of CP - 224 g x 2.6% = 5.8 g of lysine/kg, iron 964 mg/kg, total sugars 11.4%. Linseed meal appears to be the better feed).
Flaxseeds - Self Nutrition Data
Sugar: 1.5 - 2.9%
Starch: 5.2%
DE: 18 - 20.5 MJ/kg
Crude protein: 18.3 - 23.7%
Lysine: 4.1% of CP, at 23.7% CP lysine = 9.72 g/kg
Oil: 35.0 - 42.2%
Omega 3: 22.8%
Omega 6: 5.9%
Calcium: 2.6 - 3.0 g/kg
Phosphorus: 6.3 - 6.4 g/kg
Magnesium: 3.0 g/kg
Linseed and cyanide
There is considered to be no danger from feeding small amounts of raw linseed to horses. Micronised whole linseed is the form we use and recommend.
Linseed contains cyanogenic glycosides (linamarin, lotaustralin, linustatin, neolinustatin) and the enzyme beta-glycosidase in separate parts of the seed. When they come into contact with each other (through grinding or becoming wet), small amounts of hydrogen cyanide is produced. However, beta-glycosidase is destroyed by the horse's stomach acid, so no or little cyanide is produced when horses eat linseed*.
Whole linseeds have been reported to pass through horses undigested, therefore linseed is generally processed before feeding to horses, to reduce hydrogen cyanide production and to increase digestion:
- Micronised (heat treated and ground) linseed is the easiest form to feed. Micronising denatures the beta-glycosidase, preventing the formation of hydrogen cyanide.
- Raw linseed can be fed to horses, but should be ground (e.g. using a coffee grinder) just before feeding to avoid the oil becoming rancid, although ground linseed should keep in a fridge for several days*.
There is no need to boil linseed before feeding it to horses.
Omega 3 for Horses: What, Why, How? Nerida Richards, FeedXL
Linseed, is it safe? Carol Layton Balanced Equine Nutrition
Feeding Flaxseed - Nerida Richards (FeedXL), Horse Journals
What is the safest form of flaxseed - whole, ground, heat treated or oil? Samantha Potter FeedXL
Is linseed or fish oil the best source of omega 3 for horses?
Hess TM, Rexford JK, Hansen DK, Harris M, Schauermann N, Ross T, Engle TE, Allen KG, Mulligan CM
Effects of two different dietary sources of long chain omega-3, highly unsaturated fatty acids on incorporation into the plasma, red blood cell, and skeletal muscle in horses
J Anim Sci. 2012 Sep;90(9):3023-31. doi: 10.2527/jas.2011-4412. Full paper DeepDyve.
Mares were fed either no fatty acid supplement (control), 38 g of a marine (algae and fish oil) supplement containing alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), EPA and DHA, or 38 g of flaxseed meal containing alpha-linolenic acid for 90 days. Direct supplementation of EPA and DHA from a marine source increased the concentrations of these fatty acids in the plasma, red blood cells and muscle. EPA and DHA were found in the muscle of horses fed flaxseed and forage, suggesting that EPA and DHA are converted from ALA. Supplementation with flaxseed led to greater incorporation of muscle DPA compared with the marine supplement.
Vineyard KR, Warren LK, Kivipelto J.
Effect of dietary omega-3 fatty acid source on plasma and red blood cell membrane composition and immune function in yearling horses.
J Anim Sci. 2010 Jan;88(1):248-57. doi: 10.2527/jas.2009-2253. Epub 2009 Sep 25. PMID: 19783695.
"Although fed to supply a similar amount of n-3 FA, fish oil had a greater impact on plasma and RBC n-3 FA content than did flaxseed. However, supplementing horses with both fish oil and flaxseed resulted in a more pronounced early inflammatory response to PHA injection as compared with nonsupplemented horses."
Stelzleni, Elizabeth L
Effect of dietary n-3 fatty acid source on plasma, red blood cell and milk composition and immune status of mares and foals.
MSc thesis 2006 University of Florida
Research and references:
Sembratowicz I, Zieba G, Cholewinska E, Czech A
Effect of Dietary Flaxseed Oil Supplementation on the Redox Status, Haemotological and Biochemical Parameters of Horses' Blood
Animals 2020, 10, 2244. doi:10.3390/ani10122244 (full pdf available online)
Horses received 25 ml/100 kg bw of either soybean or flaxseed oil for 60 days. The omega-6:omega-3 ratio in the soybean oild was about 24 x higher than in the flaxseed oil. Blood test results - horses receiving flaxseed oil had significantly lower plasma glucose, LDL, triacylglycerols, ALT, ALP and a lower TC:HDL ratio, and higher %HDL-TC and LDH than horses receiving soybean oil. Antioxidant enzymes SOD and CAT were significantly higher in the flaxseed oil group, and horses in the flaxseed oil group had increased levels of LMW antioxidants creatinine, vitamin C, zinc and copper. Horses in the flaxseed oil group had higher haemoglobin, haematocrit and MCH, higher lymphocyte count and lysozyme activity, and lower neutrophil count than horses in the soybean group.
Lignans are present in flaxseeds, and to a much lesser extent in flaxseed oil. Lignans are weak estrogens, and may disrupt the metabolism of sex hormones on males and negatively affect reproductive indices.
Conclusions: "The results indicate that flaxseed oil exerts a beneficial effect by stimulating antioxidant defence mechanisms and reducing the severity of oxidative stress. Flaxseed oil also improved the lipid profile and haematological parameters of the blood. Therefore, the introduction of flaxseed oil to the diet of horses in place of soybean oil appears justified, but this should be verified in further research including its effect on the gut microbiota as well as immunity indices and muscle metabolism."
Hess T, Ross-Jones T
Omega-3 fatty acid supplementation in horses
R. Bras. Zootec. vol.43 no.12 Viçosa Dec. 2014
Hess TM, Rexford J, Hansen DK, Ahrens NS, Harris M, Engle T, Ross T, Allen KG
Effects of omega-3 (n-3) fatty acid supplementation on insulin sensitivity in horses
Journal of Equine Veterinary Science , Volume 33 , Issue 6 , 446 - 453
21 mares were divided into 3 groups and fed diets of alfalfa/bromegrass hay plus rolled barley in differing amounts to provide each group with the same calories and protein (nitrogen) content and similar fatty acid ratios plus:
Marine - Magnitude algae and fish oil, to provide 38 g n3 PUFA consisting of 2 g ALA, 7.6 g EPA, 26.6 g DHA, 1.7 g DPA plus rolled barley at 1.1 g/kg BW/day. n-6:n-3 for the whole diet was 0.43:1. The diet provided 891 g starch, 743 g WSC, 1.9 kg protein, 402 g fat of which in mg/kg BW 61.8 LA, 80.9 ALA, 13.0 EPA and 45.5 DHA
Nutra-Flax ground linseed, to provide 38 g n3 PUFA consisting of ALA
Control - no omega 3 supplement.
Horses were fed hay once a day at 1.6-1.7% bodyweight DM and all hay was eaten each day
Rexford JK 2010 MSc thesis
Effects of two different dietary sources of omega-3 highly unsaturated fatty acids on insulin sensitivity, and incorporation into the plasma, red blood cell, and muscle cell in horses
Linseed, is it safe? Carol Layton Balanced Equine Nutrition
Feeding Flaxseed - Nerida Richards (FeedXL), Horse Journals
Dr Richards refers to Collins et al. 2003 in her article:
Food Chem Toxicol. 2003 Jun;41(6):819-34
Effects of flaxseed and defatted flaxseed meal on reproduction and development in rats
Collins TF, Sprando RL, Black TN, Olejnik N, Wiesenfeld PW, Babu US, Bryant M, Flynn TJ, Ruggles DI
Note that high levels of flaxseed (20 and 40%) were fed to pregnant and weanling rats - the levels fed were far in excess of amounts likely to be fed to horses.
Linseed is an oil seed that provides good amounts of omega 3 (alpha-linolenic acid), with a ratio of around 4:1 omega 3:omega 6, similar to fresh grass. Whole linseed also contains lignans, high quality protein and soluble fibre. Alpha-linolenic acid makes up around 57% of the total fatty acid content of linseed, and is considered an inhibitor of pro-inflammatory mediators. Lignans acts as antioxidants and phytoestrogens. Linseed also contains cyanogenic glycosides which can release hydrogen cyanide in certain circumstances and produce thiocyanates that interfere with iodine uptake by the thyroid gland. For humans, linseed is recognised as a functional food - a food that may provide physiological benefits beyond basic nutritional functions that help to prevent and/or cure disease.
Analysis:
Linseed - Feedipedia
Feedipedia figures:
Linseed meal (leftover after oil extraction):
Crude protein 34.1% - 341 g/kg
Lysine 4% of CP - 341 g x 4% = 13.64 g of lysine/kg.
Iron 175 mg/kg.
Total sugars 4.3%.
(Compare linseed meal to copra, which has crude protein 22.4% (DM) - 224 g/kg, lysine 2.6% of CP - 224 g x 2.6% = 5.8 g of lysine/kg, iron 964 mg/kg, total sugars 11.4%. Linseed meal appears to be the better feed).
Flaxseeds - Self Nutrition Data
Sugar: 1.5 - 2.9%
Starch: 5.2%
DE: 18 - 20.5 MJ/kg
Crude protein: 18.3 - 23.7%
Lysine: 4.1% of CP, at 23.7% CP lysine = 9.72 g/kg
Oil: 35.0 - 42.2%
Omega 3: 22.8%
Omega 6: 5.9%
Calcium: 2.6 - 3.0 g/kg
Phosphorus: 6.3 - 6.4 g/kg
Magnesium: 3.0 g/kg
Linseed and cyanide
There is considered to be no danger from feeding small amounts of raw linseed to horses. Micronised whole linseed is the form we use and recommend.
Linseed contains cyanogenic glycosides (linamarin, lotaustralin, linustatin, neolinustatin) and the enzyme beta-glycosidase in separate parts of the seed. When they come into contact with each other (through grinding or becoming wet), small amounts of hydrogen cyanide is produced. However, beta-glycosidase is destroyed by the horse's stomach acid, so no or little cyanide is produced when horses eat linseed*.
Whole linseeds have been reported to pass through horses undigested, therefore linseed is generally processed before feeding to horses, to reduce hydrogen cyanide production and to increase digestion:
- Micronised (heat treated and ground) linseed is the easiest form to feed. Micronising denatures the beta-glycosidase, preventing the formation of hydrogen cyanide.
- Raw linseed can be fed to horses, but should be ground (e.g. using a coffee grinder) just before feeding to avoid the oil becoming rancid, although ground linseed should keep in a fridge for several days*.
There is no need to boil linseed before feeding it to horses.
Omega 3 for Horses: What, Why, How? Nerida Richards, FeedXL
Linseed, is it safe? Carol Layton Balanced Equine Nutrition
Feeding Flaxseed - Nerida Richards (FeedXL), Horse Journals
What is the safest form of flaxseed - whole, ground, heat treated or oil? Samantha Potter FeedXL
Is linseed or fish oil the best source of omega 3 for horses?
Hess TM, Rexford JK, Hansen DK, Harris M, Schauermann N, Ross T, Engle TE, Allen KG, Mulligan CM
Effects of two different dietary sources of long chain omega-3, highly unsaturated fatty acids on incorporation into the plasma, red blood cell, and skeletal muscle in horses
J Anim Sci. 2012 Sep;90(9):3023-31. doi: 10.2527/jas.2011-4412. Full paper DeepDyve.
Mares were fed either no fatty acid supplement (control), 38 g of a marine (algae and fish oil) supplement containing alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), EPA and DHA, or 38 g of flaxseed meal containing alpha-linolenic acid for 90 days. Direct supplementation of EPA and DHA from a marine source increased the concentrations of these fatty acids in the plasma, red blood cells and muscle. EPA and DHA were found in the muscle of horses fed flaxseed and forage, suggesting that EPA and DHA are converted from ALA. Supplementation with flaxseed led to greater incorporation of muscle DPA compared with the marine supplement.
Vineyard KR, Warren LK, Kivipelto J.
Effect of dietary omega-3 fatty acid source on plasma and red blood cell membrane composition and immune function in yearling horses.
J Anim Sci. 2010 Jan;88(1):248-57. doi: 10.2527/jas.2009-2253. Epub 2009 Sep 25. PMID: 19783695.
"Although fed to supply a similar amount of n-3 FA, fish oil had a greater impact on plasma and RBC n-3 FA content than did flaxseed. However, supplementing horses with both fish oil and flaxseed resulted in a more pronounced early inflammatory response to PHA injection as compared with nonsupplemented horses."
Stelzleni, Elizabeth L
Effect of dietary n-3 fatty acid source on plasma, red blood cell and milk composition and immune status of mares and foals.
MSc thesis 2006 University of Florida
Research and references:
Sembratowicz I, Zieba G, Cholewinska E, Czech A
Effect of Dietary Flaxseed Oil Supplementation on the Redox Status, Haemotological and Biochemical Parameters of Horses' Blood
Animals 2020, 10, 2244. doi:10.3390/ani10122244 (full pdf available online)
Horses received 25 ml/100 kg bw of either soybean or flaxseed oil for 60 days. The omega-6:omega-3 ratio in the soybean oild was about 24 x higher than in the flaxseed oil. Blood test results - horses receiving flaxseed oil had significantly lower plasma glucose, LDL, triacylglycerols, ALT, ALP and a lower TC:HDL ratio, and higher %HDL-TC and LDH than horses receiving soybean oil. Antioxidant enzymes SOD and CAT were significantly higher in the flaxseed oil group, and horses in the flaxseed oil group had increased levels of LMW antioxidants creatinine, vitamin C, zinc and copper. Horses in the flaxseed oil group had higher haemoglobin, haematocrit and MCH, higher lymphocyte count and lysozyme activity, and lower neutrophil count than horses in the soybean group.
Lignans are present in flaxseeds, and to a much lesser extent in flaxseed oil. Lignans are weak estrogens, and may disrupt the metabolism of sex hormones on males and negatively affect reproductive indices.
Conclusions: "The results indicate that flaxseed oil exerts a beneficial effect by stimulating antioxidant defence mechanisms and reducing the severity of oxidative stress. Flaxseed oil also improved the lipid profile and haematological parameters of the blood. Therefore, the introduction of flaxseed oil to the diet of horses in place of soybean oil appears justified, but this should be verified in further research including its effect on the gut microbiota as well as immunity indices and muscle metabolism."
Hess T, Ross-Jones T
Omega-3 fatty acid supplementation in horses
R. Bras. Zootec. vol.43 no.12 Viçosa Dec. 2014
Hess TM, Rexford J, Hansen DK, Ahrens NS, Harris M, Engle T, Ross T, Allen KG
Effects of omega-3 (n-3) fatty acid supplementation on insulin sensitivity in horses
Journal of Equine Veterinary Science , Volume 33 , Issue 6 , 446 - 453
21 mares were divided into 3 groups and fed diets of alfalfa/bromegrass hay plus rolled barley in differing amounts to provide each group with the same calories and protein (nitrogen) content and similar fatty acid ratios plus:
Marine - Magnitude algae and fish oil, to provide 38 g n3 PUFA consisting of 2 g ALA, 7.6 g EPA, 26.6 g DHA, 1.7 g DPA plus rolled barley at 1.1 g/kg BW/day. n-6:n-3 for the whole diet was 0.43:1. The diet provided 891 g starch, 743 g WSC, 1.9 kg protein, 402 g fat of which in mg/kg BW 61.8 LA, 80.9 ALA, 13.0 EPA and 45.5 DHA
Nutra-Flax ground linseed, to provide 38 g n3 PUFA consisting of ALA
Control - no omega 3 supplement.
Horses were fed hay once a day at 1.6-1.7% bodyweight DM and all hay was eaten each day
Rexford JK 2010 MSc thesis
Effects of two different dietary sources of omega-3 highly unsaturated fatty acids on insulin sensitivity, and incorporation into the plasma, red blood cell, and muscle cell in horses
Linseed, is it safe? Carol Layton Balanced Equine Nutrition
Feeding Flaxseed - Nerida Richards (FeedXL), Horse Journals
Dr Richards refers to Collins et al. 2003 in her article:
Food Chem Toxicol. 2003 Jun;41(6):819-34
Effects of flaxseed and defatted flaxseed meal on reproduction and development in rats
Collins TF, Sprando RL, Black TN, Olejnik N, Wiesenfeld PW, Babu US, Bryant M, Flynn TJ, Ruggles DI
Note that high levels of flaxseed (20 and 40%) were fed to pregnant and weanling rats - the levels fed were far in excess of amounts likely to be fed to horses.
Lysine
Lysine is an essential amino acid, meaning lysine must be found in the horse's diet as horses cannot make it.
Lysine is an essential amino acid, meaning lysine must be found in the horse's diet as horses cannot make it.
Lysine content in g/kg (as fed) of some commonly fed horse feeds